Human Development
Human development is a journey filled with challenges and opportunities, from the turbulence of adolescence to the self-discovery of young adulthood. This chapter delves into the complexities of moral development, Erikson’s influential psychosocial theory, and the unique paths individuals take through life’s ups and downs. Let’s explore these pivotal stages and the factors that shape a lifetime of growth.
By the end of this chapter, you should know about:
- Adolescence and Young Adulthood—The Best of Times, the Worst of Times
- Moral Development— Growing a Conscience
- The Story of a Lifetime—Rocky Road or Garden Path?
- Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Let’s take a closer look at them.
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Adolescence and Young Adulthood
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is a particularly challenging period, often described as “the best of times, the worst of times.” This stage is marked by change, exploration, exuberance, and a deep search for personal identity. However, it can also be fraught with uncertainty, confusion, and emotional turmoil, especially in contemporary society, where the timing of adulthood is often delayed.
Human Development: The Concept of Adolescence
Adolescence is generally seen as the culturally defined period between childhood and adulthood. During this stage, a person is no longer a child but not yet an adult. This transitional period is recognized across cultures, though the timing and social expectations can vary widely. In many Western cultures, adolescence typically lasts from puberty through the late teenage years into the early twenties. However, in some other cultures, people may be considered adults at much younger ages, with responsibilities like marriage or parenthood.
Human Development: The Criteria for Adulthood
In modern North America, marriage is not the primary marker of adulthood. Instead, the following are considered the most important criteria for entering adulthood:
- Taking responsibility for oneself
- Making independent decisions
- Becoming financially independent
This typically involves breaking away from parents, finding a job, and potentially moving into a separate residence. These criteria emphasize personal autonomy and the ability to live independently, rather than following traditional life markers such as marriage or parenthood.
Puberty vs. Adolescence
It’s essential to distinguish between puberty and adolescence. Puberty refers to the biological event during which hormonal changes lead to rapid physical growth and sexual maturity, typically occurring in the early teens. Adolescence, however, encompasses much more than biological maturation—it involves social, intellectual, and emotional development, which may continue long after physical maturity has been reached.
Adolescents often make life-changing decisions—such as those involving relationships, career, or personal values—even while they are still developing intellectually and socially. The consequences of these decisions can be significant, as evidenced by the high rates of teen pregnancy, substance abuse, and other risky behaviors.
Early Puberty: Risks and Benefits
The timing of puberty can significantly influence an adolescent’s experience. For boys, early maturation tends to be beneficial, as it often leads to greater self-confidence, athletic success, and social popularity. However, it also carries risks; early-maturing boys are more likely to engage in antisocial behaviors, including drug and alcohol use.
For girls, early maturation presents a more complex picture. In early adolescence, early-maturing girls may experience lower self-esteem and have difficulty fitting in with their peers due to their physical development. However, by middle adolescence, these girls may gain peer prestige and greater independence. Despite these advantages, early-maturing girls are also more likely to engage in early sexual activity and face academic challenges. Moreover, early puberty may force premature identity formation, which could lead to a distorted sense of self if identity exploration is rushed.
The Search for Identity
One of the central developmental tasks of adolescence is the search for a stable identity—the process of answering the question, “Who am I?” During this time, adolescents reflect on their values, beliefs, goals, and place in the world. This search is influenced by cognitive development. As adolescents enter the formal operational stage (Piaget), they become capable of abstract thinking and can reflect on possibilities, future goals, and moral principles. These abilities help them engage in deeper exploration of identity and begin to make decisions about their future.
However, the process of identity formation is complicated by societal expectations. Adolescents are often caught between conflicting pressures: should they be independent or dependent? Should they focus on work or play? The ambiguity around their roles in society makes it difficult for many to form a clear self-image.
Emerging Adulthood: A New Stage of Development
In recent years, scholars have identified a new developmental phase called emerging adulthood. This stage, typically spanning the late teens through the mid-twenties, is characterized by identity exploration, delayed adult responsibilities, and a period of uncertainty. In industrialized countries like the United States and Canada, many young people are choosing to extend adolescence into their twenties, delaying traditional markers of adulthood such as marriage, parenthood, and full-time career employment. This period allows for continued exploration of love, work, and personal goals before committing to long-term decisions.
For some individuals, emerging adulthood might involve living with parents until their mid-twenties, while others may take on adult responsibilities earlier. Regardless, this extended period of exploration means that the transition into adulthood is now more fluid and less predictable than in the past. This can be both a benefit—providing time for self-discovery—and a challenge, as it may create uncertainty or pressure to make crucial decisions.
Human Development: Emotional Turmoil and Moral Development
Adolescence and young adulthood are often more emotionally turbulent than later stages of life, as individuals struggle with questions of right and wrong and the development of moral values. This emotional intensity is tied to the need to form an ethical identity—to understand personal values and how those values align with societal expectations. Adolescents typically grapple with questions related to moral beliefs, political views, and their relationships with others. These challenges create a complicated emotional landscape but are crucial for the development of a cohesive, mature sense of self.
Moral Development— Growing a Conscience
Moral development is the process through which we acquire the values, beliefs, and thinking patterns that guide responsible behavior. It begins in childhood and continues into adulthood, becoming especially significant during adolescence and the transition to adulthood, as cognitive abilities like abstract thinking and self-control improve. These developments help us navigate complex moral questions and form a moral compass that influences our decisions throughout life.
Human Development: Levels of Moral Development
The acquisition of moral values and reasoning can be traced through several stages, with one of the most influential theories coming from Lawrence Kohlberg. Kohlberg proposed that we learn moral values primarily through reasoning and that moral development progresses through three levels:
Human Development: Preconventional Morality
This level is typical of young children or those in situations where moral reasoning is influenced by consequences. At this stage, individuals base their decisions on avoiding punishment or gaining rewards. For instance, in the famous drug-stealing dilemma, someone at the preconventional level might reason, “The man shouldn’t steal the drug because he could go to jail” (to avoid punishment) or “Stealing won’t help because his wife will probably die anyway” (self-interest).
Human Development: Conventional Morality
At this stage, moral reasoning is driven by a desire to please others or adhere to social rules and laws. Individuals at the conventional level may reason, “He shouldn’t steal because it would make him a thief and others would disapprove” (avoidance of disapproval) or “Stealing is against the law, and the law should be obeyed” (respect for authority). Most adolescents and adults operate primarily at this level.
Human Development: Postconventional Morality
At this highest level, moral reasoning is guided by abstract ethical principles like justice, equality, and human dignity. A person at the postconventional level might argue, “The husband should steal the drug to save a life, and then face the consequences, as the value of life is greater than the law” (principled reasoning). Kohlberg believed that only a small percentage of adults achieve this level of moral reasoning, often representing a deep commitment to universal ethical principles.
Not everyone progresses through all these stages, and individuals can remain at a lower level of moral reasoning throughout their lives. For example, many young adults may still reason about situations in terms of self-interest or social expectations. Kohlberg suggested that postconventional morality was rare and that only about 20% of adults reach this stage.
Human Development: Justice vs. Caring: A Different Perspective
In response to Kohlberg’s theory, Carol Gilligan argued that moral development, especially for women, is not only about justice but also about caring and relationship. She believed that Kohlberg’s emphasis on justice as the primary moral framework overlooked the importance of empathy and compassion.
Gilligan illustrated her point with a story about a porcupine and moles, where boys tended to focus on justice (the porcupine should leave because the moles’ house was violated), while girls often sought solutions that cared for everyone involved (such as covering the porcupine with a blanket to resolve the conflict).
Though some studies have found gender differences in moral reasoning, others suggest that both men and women use a combination of justice and caring to navigate moral dilemmas. The situation often dictates which approach is emphasized. Thus, moral decisions might combine reason and emotion, justice and caring, which some argue constitutes wisdom.
Human Development: The Importance of Moral Development
Moral development is a vital part of growing up, as it shapes how we make everyday decisions involving right and wrong. Developing the ability to reason about these issues is key to becoming a responsible adult. Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s frameworks show that moral development is complex and may include both justice-oriented and care-oriented dimensions, depending on personal, cultural, and situational factors.
Moral choices are often guided by a combination of reasoning and empathy, and learning to balance these approaches can help individuals make decisions that are not only fair but also compassionate. This process continues throughout life, and as we grow, we refine our moral beliefs and actions, aiming to make choices that align with our values and lead to greater personal responsibility.
The Story of a Lifetime
Every life unfolds through a series of developmental milestones, such as graduation, marriage, becoming a parent, or facing retirement. These milestones are important markers of personal development, marking significant turning points in a person’s life. The challenges and tasks faced during these times vary across different stages of life, each of which can bring new opportunities and dilemmas.
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
One of the most influential theories on psychosocial development comes from Erik Erikson. According to Erikson, each stage of life involves a psychosocial crisis—a conflict between personal desires and societal expectations. Successfully resolving each crisis leads to a sense of balance and the ability to tackle later challenges. Conversely, unresolved crises can lead to personal struggles and hinder growth.
Erikson outlined eight stages, each marked by a unique psychosocial dilemma:
1. First Year of Life: Trust vs. Mistrust
In infancy, babies are completely dependent on others for their care. If their caregivers provide warmth, love, and consistency, babies develop a sense of trust. If care is inconsistent or cold, mistrust may develop. This foundational trust or mistrust can impact relationships and emotional health in later life.
2. 1–3 Years: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
As toddlers begin exploring the world and asserting their independence, they develop autonomy. Positive reinforcement from caregivers encourages toddlers to take risks and try new things. However, if they are criticized or overprotected, they may feel shame and doubt about their abilities, leading to insecurity.
3. 3–5 Years: Initiative vs. Guilt
During early childhood, children begin to take initiative—planning, engaging in pretend play, and making decisions. If parents encourage exploration and creativity, children develop confidence in their abilities. If parents restrict or criticize their efforts, children may develop feelings of guilt about their desires and actions.
4. 6–12 Years: Industry vs. Inferiority
As children enter school, they are exposed to new challenges, like learning academic and social skills. Success and praise for these efforts foster a sense of industry and competence. On the other hand, failure and criticism can lead to feelings of inferiority. This stage is crucial for developing self-esteem and confidence.
5. Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescence is a time of profound change, as individuals develop their sense of self and explore different roles and identities. Successfully answering the question “Who am I?” results in a stable identity. However, if adolescents fail to integrate their experiences and roles, they may experience role confusion, feeling uncertain about their direction in life.
6. Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation
In young adulthood, the challenge is to form deep intimate relationships. Success leads to strong emotional bonds and a sense of intimacy. Failure to establish these connections can result in isolation, where individuals feel alone and disconnected from others. This stage is key to developing meaningful friendships and romantic relationships.
7. Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
During middle adulthood, people are often focused on generativity—a desire to nurture and guide the next generation. This can be expressed through parenting, teaching, or contributing to society through work or community involvement. If individuals become too self-centered or focused on personal gains, they may experience stagnation, feeling unfulfilled and disconnected from broader societal concerns.
8. Late Adulthood: Integrity vs. Despair
In late adulthood, people reflect on their lives. If they are able to look back with satisfaction and accept their life choices, they develop a sense of integrity. However, if they feel regret or see their life as a series of missed opportunities, they may experience despair, feeling that it’s too late to change or make amends. This stage involves coming to terms with the end of life.
The Whole Human: A Lifetime of Development
Erikson’s theory provides a useful framework for understanding the typical challenges people face at various stages of life. However, it’s important to note that not everyone’s life fits neatly into these stages. Life is full of twists, turns, and personal variations that may make some dilemmas more difficult or easier to navigate. Understanding Erikson’s stages, though, can help us anticipate common difficulties at different points in life and better empathize with others who may be facing similar challenges.
While successes in each of these stages foster healthy development, the unresolved dilemmas may create struggles that hinder growth. The psychosocial crises Erikson described aren’t just theoretical—they reflect real struggles many people face as they move through life.