Psychology
Psychology comes from the Greek words “psyche” (mind) and “logos” (knowledge or learning). Modern psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Unlike other scientific disciplines, the mind itself cannot be directly observed, so psychologists focus on behavior and mental functions.
By the end of this Chapter, you should know about:
- What is psychology and what are its goals?
- What is critical thinking?
- The Scientific Method in Psychological Research
- History of Psychology as a Science
Let’s take a closer look.
Test Your Knowledge
At the end of this section, take a fast and free pop quiz to see how much you know about Psychology.
What is psychology and what are its goals?
Behavior and cognition: Behavior includes all observable behaviors, such as talking, eating, sleeping, skydiving, etc. Even extreme sports are called overt behaviors because they can be measured that way these actions by visible. Covert processes, in contrast, are mental processes, such as thoughts, dreams, and memories, that cannot be directly observed.
Psychology, Science and Practice: Psychologists work as researchers and practitioners:
Researchers examine human behavior and gather new knowledge.
Therapists apply psychological principles in a variety of fields, including psychiatry, education, business, sports, and law.
Teachers teach psychology to students and share knowledge.
Knowledge Requirements in Psychology: Psychology is often critical of “common sense” beliefs, because many are inconsistent or based on limited observations. For example, people attribute relationship success to “the attraction of opposites” or “the gathering of feathers,” depending on results, rational beliefs that are often ambiguous; it was conditional, without scientific evidence.
Scientific and Rational Observation: Unlike ad hoc observations, scientific observations are systematic (well planned) and interdisciplinary (multiple observers emphasize) Perspective and behaviorists use empirical evidence—facts gathered through observation—to draw valid conclusions rather than relying on vague beliefs. For instance, a study by Simister and Cooper (2005) observed crime rates in Los Angeles over four years, finding that higher temperatures correlated with increased assaults. This is an example of psychology confirming or disproving beliefs with systematic evidence.
Testing Common Sense Beliefs
Examining logical arguments: Psychologists examine logical beliefs, revealing that many widely accepted ideas are in fact false. Examples of common but incorrect beliefs include:
Babies just love feeding their mothers.
Humans use only 10% of their brain power.
Blind people have developed a great sense of touch.
Reflective Thinking In Psychology: Critical thinking is encouraged in psychology. Rationally examining beliefs and considering empirical evidence helps separate fact from myth. In psychology, the process is emphasized to promote a deeper, evidence-based understanding of human behavior.
Psychological Research
The Scientific Nature of Psychology: Psychology differs from fields such as history, law, and business in that it uses scientific insights to systematically answer questions about behavior When psychologists are studying human behavior, systematic research methods are used to ensure reliable and objective results. For example, thanks to the development of the EEG (electroencephalograph), scientists can measure brain activity and see that people who claim to never dream actually do, thus helping scientific research into dreams.
Goals of Psychology
Key Terms in Psychology
Psychology: The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Scientific Observation: A structured and intersubjective empirical investigation. Research Method: A systematic approach to answer scientific questions.
What is critical thinking?
Critical Thinking: In psychology, it’s a reflective process that evaluates beliefs through scientific evidence and logical reasoning. Commonsense Fallacies: Critical thinking helps avoid being misled by untested beliefs, urban legends, or unscientific claims like astrology or pseudoscience.
Principles of Critical Thinking
Testing “Truths”: Most ideas should be examined for logical coherence and empirical support. Falsifiability: Critical thinkers should seek evidence that could disprove a belief, making beliefs that withstand testing more credible. Skepticism of Authority: Claims by experts should be questioned and not accepted at face value without scientific support. Evaluating Evidence: Quality of evidence is crucial. Critical thinkers weigh credible evidence more heavily than anecdotal or biased information. Open-Mindedness: Balancing skepticism with openness to new ideas, without gullibility.
Practical Application of Critical Thinking
Questions to consider when evaluating new claims:
What are the claims and their implications?
Are they logical and understandable? Are there simpler explanations?
What tests support the claims, and were they rigorous and unbiased?
How credible is the evidence, and is it reproducible?
Knowledge Recap Questions and Reflection
Basic Understanding: Recognize psychology as the study of behavior and mental processes. Common Sense Issues: Commonsense beliefs are often vague and inconsistent. Empirical Evidence: The best information in psychology is typically based on empirical evidence, not opinion. Understanding Behavior: Questions about why behavior occurs align with psychology’s goal of understanding.
Key Concepts in Psychology and Pseudopsychology
Description: Psychologists start by carefully describing and classifying behaviors to create a foundation for understanding. Understanding: Psychologists explain behaviors by identifying causes, such as the “diffusion of responsibility” that explains why bystanders may not help in emergencies. Prediction: This involves forecasting behaviors based on prior knowledge, such as predicting lower chances of receiving help in crowded settings. Control: Control aims to alter conditions to influence behaviors positively, like treating phobias or improving learning environments.
These goals demonstrate psychology’s scientific pursuit to understand, predict, and influence behaviors based on empirical evidence.
The Role of Critical Thinking in Psychology
Critical thinking is essential to psychology as it encourages the questioning of unsupported claims. Key principles include:
Empirical Testing: Most ideas in psychology are subject to testing and empirical scrutiny. Falsifiability: Critical thinkers seek evidence to disprove claims, which strengthens valid ideas. Skepticism of Authority: An expert’s claim is evaluated on evidence, not authority alone. Quality of Evidence: Critical thinkers assess the credibility of evidence and avoid uncritical acceptance.
Critical thinking strengthens psychology by promoting scientifically supported insights rather than relying on subjective beliefs or authority alone.
Distinguishing Psychology from Pseudopsychology
A pseudopsychology resembles psychology but lacks scientific foundation and often resists change, unlike scientific psychology, which evolves based on new evidence. Examples include:
Phrenology: Claimed skull shape reveals personality, now debunked. Palmistry: Asserts that hand lines predict personality and future events, unsupported by evidence. Graphology: Attempts to link handwriting with personality but lacks validity for predicting behaviors or traits. Astrology: Claims celestial positions influence personality and fate, yet fails both theoretical and empirical tests.
These pseudosciences remain popular due to uncritical acceptance, confirmation bias, and the Barnum effect—the tendency to believe vague, general descriptions apply personally. For example, astrology often uses positive or universal traits that seem personally relevant, leading people to overestimate its accuracy.
Psychological Terms
Superstition: Belief in ideas without evidence, resistant to change even when disproved. Uncritical Acceptance: Believing claims based on appeal rather than validity. Confirmation Bias: Remembering evidence that confirms beliefs while ignoring contrary evidence. Barnum Effect: The inclination to accept general statements as highly personal.
The Scientific Method in Psychological Research
In psychology, critical thinking and systematic observation are foundational. This approach requires careful, planned observations that produce reliable information about behavior, as opposed to random or haphazard observations.
The Scientific Method
The scientific method in psychology includes six essential elements that help ensure reliable and reproducible results:
Making Observations: Identify a phenomenon or behavior to investigate. Defining a Problem: Specify a clear, researchable question. For instance, if studying the belief that women talk more than men, the problem should clarify the need to measure natural conversations over time without bias. Proposing a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable statement or educated guess about a relationship or outcome, such as “women are more talkative than men.”
Hypotheses must include operational definitions—precise descriptions of how concepts are measured (e.g., defining “talkativeness” as the number of words spoken daily).
Gathering Evidence/Testing the Hypothesis: Researchers collect data systematically to test their hypotheses. In the study of talkativeness, researchers used recorders to track words spoken by participants to produce unbiased data. Theory Building: A theory is a system of ideas that organizes concepts and predicts outcomes. For example, findings in the talkativeness study might lead to theories explaining talkativeness across various age groups, encouraging further research. Publishing Results: Psychologists publish their findings in scientific journals to allow other researchers to replicate and verify the results, making the data publicly accessible and reliable.
Example Study: Talkativeness in Men and Women
To test the stereotype that women talk more than men, researchers:
Observed prior studies that supported this belief. Noted that no studies recorded natural conversations over extended periods. Formulated a hypothesis to test whether women speak more. Used electronically activated recorders to track conversations, ensuring participants spoke naturally by recording in short, random intervals. Found that women spoke 16,215 words daily on average, with men close behind at 15,699 words—an insignificant difference, disconfirming the stereotype.
Key Research Concepts
- Hypothesis: A testable prediction or educated guess about behavior or relationships.
- Operational Definition: Clear descriptions of procedures to measure concepts; for example, frustration might be defined as the interruption of a task with a reward at stake.
- Theory: A framework for explaining patterns in data and predicting new findings.
Ethical Guidelines in Psychological Research
Psychological research must adhere to strict ethical standards, addressing concerns about deception, privacy, and risk of harm to participants. Basic ethical guidelines include:
Do No Harm: Minimize risks and discomfort for participants.
Transparency: Accurately describe risks and ensure voluntary participation.
Confidentiality: Protect participants’ personal information.
Use of Deception: Only allowed when absolutely necessary and must be followed by debriefing.
Respect and Dignity: Treat participants respectfully and provide information on study outcomes.
History of Psychology as a Science
The scientific approach to psychology began with Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany, where he established a laboratory to study conscious experience systematically. Wundt used introspection, or self-examination, to understand how people experience various stimuli. This early work laid the foundation for psychology’s development as a scientific field.
Key Terms in Psychology
Scientific Method: A structured approach to research that includes careful observation, measurement, and controlled experimentation. Barnum Effect: The tendency to believe vague, general statements as personally meaningful.
Structuralism
Founding and Approach: Structuralism was introduced in the U.S. by Edward Titchener, who expanded upon Wilhelm Wundt’s ideas. Structuralists aimed to understand the structure of mental processes by breaking them down into basic “elements” or “building blocks.” Method of Study: Structuralists relied heavily on introspection—examining one’s own conscious experience to identify basic elements. For example, holding an apple might involve noting sensations of color, roundness, and weight. Criticisms: Introspection was unreliable because observers often disagreed, and there was no way to objectively resolve these differences. Despite its limitations, introspection is still used in areas like hypnosis, meditation, and mood research.
Functionalism
Founding and Approach: Led by William James, functionalism focused on how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment. James saw consciousness as a “stream” rather than static building blocks, in contrast to structuralism. Influence of Darwin: Functionalists were influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection, suggesting that mental processes like perception, habits, and emotions evolved to aid survival. Impact on Psychology: Functionalism expanded psychology’s scope, promoting studies in animal behavior, educational psychology, and industrial/organizational psychology—all aimed at improving adaptability and functionality in real-world settings.
Behaviorism
Founding and Core Principles: Behaviorism emerged as a response to introspection’s subjectivity, focusing instead on observable behavior. John B. Watson argued that psychology should focus on observable stimuli and responses rather than introspective “mind” studies. Conditioning: Watson incorporated conditioning (introduced by Ivan Pavlov) to explain behavior, suggesting that behaviors are learned responses to environmental stimuli. Radical Behaviorism: B.F. Skinner furthered behaviorism by introducing operant conditioning—the idea that behavior is shaped by rewards and punishments. Skinner’s “Skinner box” experiments helped demonstrate his theories, though he controversially suggested that all behavior could be controlled through external reinforcement. Legacy: Behaviorism contributed greatly to understanding learning, conditioning, and the effects of reward and punishment but was critiqued for ignoring internal mental processes.
Cognitive Behaviorism
Concept: Cognitive behaviorism integrates behaviorist principles with cognitive psychology, acknowledging that thoughts and expectations can influence behavior. Example: A cognitive behaviorist would argue that a person returns to a website not only for the immediate pleasure (reward) of the content but also due to their expectation of finding enjoyable videos.
Gestalt Psychology
Founding and Key Ideas: German psychologist Max Wertheimer founded Gestalt psychology, which argued that psychological experiences are best understood as structured, organized wholes rather than broken down into individual parts. “The Whole is Greater than the Sum of its Parts”: This core principle suggests that perception is based on patterns and relationships between parts, not on isolated sensations. For instance, a melody is recognizable regardless of the instrument playing it because of the relationship between notes. Influence: Gestalt psychology influenced studies on perception and personality by focusing on holistic experiences.
Psychoanalytic Psychology
Founding and Core Beliefs: Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, emphasizing the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior. Freud compared mental life to an iceberg, with most thoughts and desires hidden below conscious awareness. Key Concepts:
Unconscious Motivation: Freud believed unconscious desires, especially around sex and aggression, significantly shape behavior. Repression: Threatening thoughts are often repressed but may surface as dreams or “Freudian slips.” Determinism: Freud argued that every thought and action has a cause rooted in unconscious processes.
Influence and Development: Freud’s ideas led to psychoanalysis as a therapeutic method. His students, later known as neo-Freudians (e.g., Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson), adapted his theories, placing greater emphasis on social motives and relationships.
Humanistic Psychology
Core Focus: Humanism centers on subjective human experience, emphasizing personal growth, potentials, ideals, and addressing human problems. Differences from Other Approaches: Humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, rejected the deterministic perspectives of Freudian and behaviorist psychology, which propose that behavior is governed by unconscious forces or conditioning. Instead, humanism stresses free will—the belief that people can make independent choices and pursue personal fulfillment. Psychological Needs: Humanists focus on psychological needs like love, self-esteem, belonging, self-expression, creativity, and spirituality. These needs are seen as essential to human well-being, just like biological needs for food and water. Scientific Foundation: Initially, humanists were less concerned with treating psychology as a traditional science, focusing more on subjective concepts like self-image (one’s perception of themselves), self-evaluation (self-assessment as positive or negative), and frame of reference (mental perspective for interpreting events). Today, however, many humanistic psychologists conduct research to support their theories. Self-Actualization: Introduced by Maslow, self-actualization represents the ongoing process of realizing and fully developing one’s personal potential. Humanists believe this potential is inherent in everyone and seek to facilitate its emergence.
Summary of Early Development in Psychology
| Perspective | Date | Notable Events |
|---|---|---|
| Experimental Psychology | 1875 | William James offers the first psychology course |
| 1878 | First American Ph.D. in psychology awarded | |
| 1879 | Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology laboratory in Germany | |
| 1883 | First American psychology lab founded at Johns Hopkins University | |
| 1886 | John Dewey writes first American psychology textbook | |
| Structuralism | 1898 | Edward Titchener advances psychology based on introspection |
| Functionalism | 1890 | William James publishes Principles of Psychology |
| 1892 | American Psychological Association founded | |
| Psychodynamic Psychology | 1895 | Freud publishes first studies |
| 1900 | Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams | |
| Behaviorism | 1906 | Ivan Pavlov reports research on conditioned reflexes |
| 1913 | John Watson presents behaviorist view | |
| Gestalt Psychology | 1912 | Max Wertheimer and others advance Gestalt viewpoint |
| Humanistic Psychology | 1942 | Carl Rogers publishes Counseling and Psychotherapy |
| 1943 | Abraham Maslow publishes A Theory of Human Motivation |
Role of Diversity in Psychology
Historical Representation: Initially, psychology was dominated by Caucasian men, but women and ethnic minorities gradually made significant contributions: Margaret Washburn: First woman awarded a Ph.D. in psychology (1894). Francis Cecil Sumner: First African American man to earn a psychology Ph.D. (1920). Inez Beverly Prosser: First African American woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. (1933).
Key Terms in Psychology
Gestalt Psychology: Emphasizes studying psychological phenomena as structured, holistic units rather than separate parts. Unconscious: Contents of the mind that are outside of conscious awareness, including impulses and desires not directly known to the individual. Repression: The unconscious process of keeping distressing memories, thoughts, or impulses out of awareness. Psychoanalysis: A therapeutic approach developed by Freud, focusing on exploring unconscious conflicts. Neo-Freudian: Psychologists who adopt Freud’s general ideas but modify them, often placing less emphasis on sexual and aggressive drives. Psychodynamic Theory: Any theory that emphasizes internal conflicts, motives, and unconscious forces in understanding behavior. Humanism: An approach focusing on human experiences, potentials, and ideals. Determinism: The idea that all behavior has prior causes that explain one’s choices and actions if fully known. Free Will: The belief that humans can make choices independently. Self-Actualization: The process of fully developing one’s personal potential, a key concept in humanistic psychology.
The “WEIRD” concept (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) highlights a critical issue in psychological research: the tendency to generalize findings from a narrow group of participants, typically Western college students, to the broader global population. This approach often neglects cultural, gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity, leading to conclusions that may not universally apply.
Key Points on Human Diversity in Psychology:
Biased Sample Populations: Historically, psychological studies have disproportionately focused on Western, Caucasian, middle-class participants, often college students. This bias, as noted by researchers like Edward Tolman, limits the scope of psychological findings since these participants do not represent the full diversity of human experience.
The WEIRD Problem: Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010) coined the term “WEIRD” to describe the demographic bias in psychological research. Their review showed that Western behavior and values are not universal; in fact, Western behaviors are often outliers when compared to non-Western societies.
Gender Bias in Research: Early studies, such as Laurence Kohlberg’s moral development theory, often reflected gender biases. Kohlberg suggested women were less morally “mature” because they scored lower on justice-focused measures. Carol Gilligan later countered this, showing that women tend to emphasize care and relationships in moral reasoning—a perspective Kohlberg’s model didn’t capture, highlighting the impact of male-centered research assumptions.
Broadening Representation: Increased diversity among researchers and participants has begun to address these biases. For example, since 2000, over 70% of psychology degrees have been awarded to women, and representation among people of color has grown significantly in psychology programs.
Inclusive Methodologies: To address these biases, researchers are encouraged to use more representative samples, explicitly include diverse perspectives, and be cautious when generalizing findings. A broader approach helps ensure psychological theories and findings are applicable across different cultures, ages, genders, and social backgrounds.
Modern psychology recognizes the need to examine human behavior through multiple lenses, allowing a more comprehensive understanding. The three main contemporary perspectives in psychology—the biological, psychological, and sociocultural—offer complementary ways to analyze and interpret behavior.
Biological Perspective
This approach explains behavior in terms of physical processes, such as brain activity, genetics, and hormonal influences. Under this umbrella, two main views emerge:
Biopsychological View: Focuses on how internal biological processes (like brain function and biochemical interactions) influence behavior. This perspective is often reductionistic, viewing complex human behaviors as outcomes of simple physical causes.
Evolutionary View: Explores how evolutionary processes, such as natural selection, shape behavior and mental processes over time.
Psychological Perspective
This perspective emphasizes the mental and emotional processes within each individual. It includes various sub-perspectives:
Behavioral View: Stresses the role of environmental stimuli, rewards, and punishments in shaping behavior, often focusing on observable behaviors over internal processes.
Cognitive View: Examines how people think, perceive, remember, and make decisions, likening the human mind to a computer that processes information.
Psychodynamic View: Based on Freudian theory, this approach emphasizes unconscious drives, desires, and conflicts as primary forces behind behavior. Though it originally had a negative view of human nature, modern adaptations are more balanced.
Humanistic View: Focuses on individual potential, self-image, and the importance of personal growth. This perspective, which led to the development of positive psychology, maintains an optimistic view of human nature and emphasizes self-actualization.
Sociocultural Perspective
This view stresses the influence of social and cultural environments on behavior, reflecting the multicultural nature of modern societies. Key concepts include:
Social Norms and Cultural Relativity: Social norms dictate acceptable behavior, while cultural relativity emphasizes that behaviors should be understood within their cultural contexts. Psychologists following this approach highlight how ethnicity, age, gender, and other social factors influence norms and behavior.
Integration and Eclecticism
Recognizing that no single perspective can capture the complexity of human behavior, modern psychology often adopts an eclectic approach. Psychologists draw from multiple perspectives to form a more complete and nuanced understanding, allowing insights from biology, mental processes, and social influences to interact and inform one another.
Positive Psychology
Inspired partly by humanism, positive psychology shifts focus from dysfunction to the study of strengths and virtues, like love, happiness, and creativity. It aims to uncover the factors that contribute to fulfilling and meaningful lives, providing tools for personal and social well-being.