Psychology
Psychology is a broad field with diverse areas of specialization. Many psychologists work in research, academia, or other applied settings. And all psychologists are trained extensively in the field’s theories, knowledge, and methods. Only about 59% of psychologists are involved in clinical and counseling roles where they primarily offer therapy and treat behavioral issues.
By the end of this Chapter, you should know about:
- Overview of Psychology Specialties
- The Psychology Experiment: Understanding Cause and Effect
- Double-Blind Experiments: Minimizing Bias and Enhancing Validity
- Nonexperimental Research Methods — Different Strokes
Let’s take a closer look.
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Types of Psychology Specialties
Clinical and Counseling Psychology:
Clinical psychologists treat severe psychological problems and conduct research on therapy methods.
Counseling psychologists often handle milder issues like personal and work-related problems. These two areas are increasingly overlapping.
Academic and Research Psychology:
About 29% of psychologists work in universities, conducting research and teaching.
Some focus on basic research (studying mental processes for knowledge’s sake), while others do applied research to solve real-world issues, like improving health behaviors or learning techniques.
Applied Psychology Specialties (selected examples):
Biopsychology: Studies the brain and physical influences on behavior.
Cognitive Psychology: Researches thinking, problem-solving, and memory processes.
Developmental Psychology: Focuses on changes across a person’s lifespan, from infancy to adulthood.
Industrial-Organizational Psychology: Examines workplace dynamics, employee selection, and training.
Health Psychology: Studies how behavior impacts health, with a focus on promoting healthy habits.
For a full list of psychology specializations, refer to Table 1.5 for specific areas and their typical activities.
Path to Becoming a psychologist
Psychologists typically hold a master’s or doctoral degree (Ph.D., Psy.D., or Ed.D.), with training that spans several years beyond an undergraduate degree. Clinical and counseling psychologists generally require a state license to practice, ensuring they meet educational and ethical standards.
Different Psychology Degrees:
Ph.D.: Often research-focused and suited for those aiming to conduct studies or teach in academic settings.
Psy.D.: Emphasizes therapy skills over research and is designed for those aiming to practice as therapists.
Ethical Standards and Licensing
All licensed psychologists must adhere to a professional ethical code. This includes:
Competence, Integrity, and Responsibility: Ensuring high-quality, responsible practice.
Respect for Client Rights: Protecting privacy, confidentiality, and dignity.
Client Welfare: Prioritizing the well-being and safety of those they serve.
To practice legally, psychologists must meet stringent educational and state licensure requirements. This protects clients from unqualified practitioners who may not have received formal training.
Other Mental Health Professionals
Psychologists work alongside other mental health professionals, each with specific roles:
Psychiatrists: Medical doctors who can prescribe medications and often focus on treating severe mental illnesses.
Psychoanalysts: Specialists in Freudian therapy, usually with an M.D. or Ph.D.
Counselors: Professionals with master’s degrees who help with personal issues like marriage or career but do not treat severe disorders.
Psychiatric Social Workers: Typically hold an M.S.W. and work in hospitals or clinics, often collaborating with psychologists and psychiatrists to support patients.
Psychology and Animal Research
Psychologists may study animal behavior to gain insights into human psychology. Comparative psychology involves studying animals to understand stress, learning, or other topics applicable to humans. This research can also improve animal welfare, for instance, by informing care practices for zoo animals.
Media Misrepresentations of Psychologists
Psychologists are sometimes inaccurately portrayed in films as unprofessional or unethical. In reality, licensed psychologists are required to follow ethical guidelines and undergo extensive training to ensure responsible practice.
The Psychology Experiment: Understanding Cause and Effect
An experiment in psychology is a controlled trial designed to explore cause-and-effect relationships. This method is key to explaining why certain behaviors occur. Experiments allow psychologists to manipulate variables systematically and observe the resulting changes in behavior, making them one of the most powerful tools for scientific research in the field.
Steps to Conduct an Experiment
To conduct a basic experiment, psychologists follow these steps:
Vary a Condition: Adjust a factor thought to influence behavior.
Form Two Groups: Divide subjects into an experimental group (exposed to the variable) and a control group (not exposed to the variable).
Observe the Effects: Record the impact of the variable on behavior across groups.
Example: In a study on cell phone use and driving, participants are divided into two groups: one uses a cell phone while driving, and the other does not. By comparing driving performance between the groups, researchers can determine if cell phone use impacts driving ability.
Key Concepts in Experimental Design
Independent Variable (IV): The factor manipulated by the experimenter, which is suspected to cause changes in behavior. In the driving study, cell phone use is the independent variable.
Dependent Variable (DV): The measured outcome of the experiment, reflecting the effect of the IV. In the driving study, driving ability (measured by test scores) is the dependent variable.
Extraneous Variables: These are other factors that could affect the DV but are not of interest to the study. Examples include sleep, driving experience, and familiarity with the test vehicle. Controlling these ensures they don’t interfere with the experiment’s results.
Importance of Experimental and Control Groups
The experimental group is exposed to the IV, while the control group is not, providing a baseline for comparison. This comparison is essential to determine if the IV impacts the DV. Without a control group, it would be impossible to conclude whether changes in the DV are due to the IV or other factors.
Example: To test if listening to music improves study outcomes, one group listens to music while studying (experimental), and the other does not (control). Differences in test scores between groups would indicate if music affects learning.
Controlling for Bias and Variability
Random Assignment: Participants are randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group, balancing personal differences across groups. This reduces bias, as it equalizes characteristics like intelligence, mood, and other individual traits that could skew results.
Standardized Conditions: Extraneous variables like study time, room temperature, and lighting are kept constant across groups. Ensuring consistency allows any difference in the DV to be attributed to the IV alone.
Cause and Effect in Experiments
In a controlled experiment, differences in the DV can be traced directly to the IV, enabling researchers to draw clear cause-and-effect conclusions. By controlling extraneous variables and only altering the IV, any observed effect in the DV is likely due to the manipulated variable.
Evaluating Experimental Results
- Statistical Significance: Psychologists use statistics to determine if results are meaningful or likely due to chance. A result is statistically significant if it would occur by chance less than 5% of the time (p < 0.05).
- Replication: The credibility of experimental findings increases when they are replicated by other studies. Replication confirms that the results are not anomalies but rather reliable indicators of the effects of the IV on the DV.
Meta-Analysis: Synthesizing Research Findings
When multiple studies investigate the same topic, a meta-analysis can combine their findings to form a comprehensive picture. Meta-analysis treats results from various studies as if they were part of a single, larger study, enhancing the reliability of conclusions.
Example: Meta-analyses on risk-taking behavior have shown that males tend to engage in riskier behaviors than females, a finding supported by multiple studies on different types of risk.
Double-Blind Experiments: Minimizing Bias and Enhancing Validity
In psychological research, double-blind experiments are designed to prevent both research participant bias and researcher bias. This setup ensures that neither the participants nor the researchers are aware of who belongs to the experimental or control group, thus minimizing the impact of expectations on the outcomes.
Participant and Researcher Bias in Experiments
Research Participant Bias: When participants’ expectations influence their behavior in a study, this is called participant bias. If participants are aware of the study’s purpose, their expectations may cause them to act in ways that affect the results.
Placebo Effect: Sometimes, participants believe they are receiving treatment even when they are not, which can lead to changes in their behavior simply due to their beliefs. This is known as the placebo effect. Studies have shown that placebos, such as sugar pills, can significantly impact pain relief and emotional conditions due to the participants’ expectations of improvement.
Controlling Participant Bias: Single-Blind Experiments
In a single-blind experiment, participants do not know if they are receiving the real treatment or a placebo. This controls participant bias by keeping their expectations consistent. All participants, regardless of group, follow identical instructions and receive similar treatments (e.g., both groups receive pills, though only one group gets the actual drug).
Researcher Bias and Its Impact
Researcher Bias: This occurs when researchers unintentionally influence participants through subtle cues, such as body language or tone, which can affect the results. Psychologist Robert Rosenthal demonstrated that researchers’ expectations can create self-fulfilling prophecies. For example, teachers expecting “high ability” students to perform well unconsciously communicated these expectations, which in turn influenced the students’ performance positively.
Double-Blind Experiments: The Ideal Design for Controlling Bias
In a double-blind experiment, both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments, such as who receives the drug and who gets a placebo. This method reduces both participant and researcher biases, as neither party knows which treatment is being administered to whom.
To implement this design, researchers usually prepare materials and protocols in advance, then hire research assistants who are also “blind” to the group assignments. This ensures that no intentional or unintentional cues can influence participants.
Psychology: Example of Double-Blind Findings
Studies using double-blind designs have shown that 50% of the effectiveness of antidepressants can be attributed to the placebo effect. This highlights the significant role that expectations play in treatment outcomes and demonstrates the value of double-blind experiments in revealing true effects.
Key Concepts
Placebo: An inactive substance used to measure the psychological effect of receiving treatment.
Single-Blind Experiment: A setup where participants are unaware of whether they are receiving a real treatment or a placebo.
Double-Blind Experiment: Both participants and researchers are unaware of group assignments, which minimizes participant and researcher bias.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: A situation where expectations influence behavior in a way that causes the expected outcome to occur.
Nonexperimental Research Methods — Different Strokes
Psychologists use various nonexperimental research methods to gather evidence and test hypotheses, especially when controlled experimentation is not possible. These methods provide valuable insights into human and animal behavior by observing patterns, relationships, and case-specific details. Here’s an overview of four key nonexperimental research methods:
Psychology: Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation involves actively observing subjects in their natural environment without interference. This method allows researchers to document authentic behaviors. For instance, Jane Goodall’s studies on chimpanzees using tools in the wild demonstrated behaviors that might have been altered if the animals were observed in a zoo. However, a drawback of this method is the observer effect, where subjects change their behavior when they know they’re being observed. Techniques like hidden cameras or disguising observers can help reduce this effect. Observer bias is another limitation, where researchers may see what they expect to see, potentially skewing results. An anthropomorphic error—attributing human emotions to animals—can also affect interpretations.
Psychology: Correlational Studies
Correlational studies involve measuring two or more variables to determine if they are related. For example, a psychologist might study the correlation between practice hours and sports performance. Correlation coefficients (ranging from -1.00 to +1.00) indicate the strength and direction of the relationship, with positive correlations showing that both variables increase together and negative correlations indicating an inverse relationship. However, correlation does not imply causation; a relationship between two variables doesn’t necessarily mean one causes the other. For example, a correlation between video game use and lower grades doesn’t prove that gaming causes lower grades.
Psychology: Clinical Method (Case Studies)
Case studies offer an in-depth focus on an individual or small group, often used in clinical psychology to explore unique or rare conditions. These can provide insights into mental disorders or psychological responses to unusual events, such as Phineas Gage’s personality change after a brain injury. While case studies allow for a detailed understanding, they lack the formal controls of experimental methods, which limits the ability to generalize findings. Nonetheless, long-term studies, like those on the Genain sisters, can offer invaluable insights into complex issues like the interplay between genetics and environmental factors in mental illness.
Psychology: Survey Method
Surveys involve polling a representative sample of people to gather information about their behaviors, thoughts, or preferences. For example, psychologists might survey people about their childhood discipline or reasons for risky behaviors. A representative sample, which reflects the demographics of the larger population, is crucial to ensure accurate results. However, surveys using biased samples, like those conducted by niche magazines, may not accurately reflect the general population. Random selection and large sample sizes help improve survey reliability, making it a practical way to collect data from many participants.
Psychology: Key Aspects of Internet Surveys
Broad Accessibility and Reach: Internet surveys allow researchers to gather data from hard-to-reach populations. Online platforms make it easy to collect a large number of responses quickly and affordably, which is ideal for studies needing vast amounts of data.
Bias and Sampling Limitations: One limitation of internet surveys is the biased sample. Because researchers have less control over who participates online, responses might not accurately represent the general population. Researchers are continually refining methods to obtain more valid and representative samples online.
Social Desirability Bias: Even with anonymous surveys, respondents may give socially desirable or “polite” answers, especially on sensitive topics like sexual behavior, income, or drug use. Known as courtesy bias, this tendency can skew results, as people may respond based on what they think is acceptable rather than what is true.
Valuable Data Collection Tool: Despite these challenges, internet surveys are valuable in psychological research. For example, they have been used to assess vulnerabilities in U.S. retail malls to improve responses to potential security threats. This demonstrates the practical applications of internet survey data in enhancing public safety.