Motivation and Emotion
Motivation and Emotion are deeply connected to our physiological responses, influencing how we react to different situations. Understanding the physiology of emotion helps explain why we experience physical changes during emotional states. Additionally, the way we express emotions varies across cultures and individuals. T
By the end of this chapter, you should know about:
- Physiology and Emotion
- Expressing Emotions
- Theories of Emotion
- Emotional intelligence
Let’s take a closer look at them
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Physiology and Emotion
Emotions trigger significant changes in the body, which are part of the physiological responses driven by the autonomic nervous system (ANS). This system has two branches: the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which work together to regulate emotional responses and maintain balance in the body.
Motivation and Emotion: Sympathetic Nervous System and the Fight-or-Flight Response
When an individual experiences strong emotions like fear or anger, the sympathetic nervous system becomes active, preparing the body for immediate action. This is often referred to as the fight-or-flight response. In such states, the body undergoes several changes, including an increased heart rate, faster breathing, and the release of sugar into the bloodstream to provide quick energy. Digestive functions slow down, and blood flow to the skin is restricted, all to prioritize vital functions necessary for survival. This response is an automatic, innate reaction that prepares the body to either face the threat (fight) or flee from it.
Motivation and Emotion: Parasympathetic Nervous System: Calming the Body
Once the perceived danger has passed, the parasympathetic nervous system takes over to restore calm. It counteracts the heightened physiological state caused by the sympathetic nervous system, reducing heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and aiding in energy conservation. However, the parasympathetic system takes longer to activate and its effects are slower to take place. This is why after experiencing intense fear or anxiety, bodily symptoms such as a racing heart or muscle tension may persist for several minutes. In extreme cases, an overreaction by the parasympathetic system can lead to a sharp drop in blood pressure, potentially causing dizziness or fainting.
Motivation and Emotion: The Dangers of Strong Emotional Responses
While most emotional responses are beneficial for survival, in some situations, the intensity of emotions can lead to sudden death. This can occur in two ways: either from excessive activation of the sympathetic nervous system, such as during stress-induced heart attacks, or from an extreme parasympathetic rebound. The latter can happen in high-stress situations like warfare, where intense fear can cause the parasympathetic system to overreact, slowing the heart to dangerous levels and potentially leading to death.
Lie Detection: The Polygraph
One of the most well-known methods for detecting lies is the polygraph or “lie detector” test, which measures physiological changes such as heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and skin conductance (sweating). However, the polygraph is not a reliable tool for detecting lies because it measures general emotional arousal rather than specifically identifying deception. The emotions that arise from fear, anxiety, or excitement can produce similar physiological changes, making it difficult to distinguish between lying and other emotional responses. For example, a person may become anxious and show signs of arousal when asked about a crime they did not commit, leading to a false indication of guilt.
Motivation and Emotion: The Limitations of Polygraphs
Despite the polygraph’s use in criminal investigations, it is not foolproof. Research has shown that polygraph tests can result in false positives, where innocent individuals are mistakenly identified as lying. In fact, studies suggest that up to 25% of wrongful convictions may involve false confessions, and polygraph tests can exacerbate this issue. The guilty knowledge test—which asks specific questions about a crime in order to detect knowledge only a guilty person would have—has been developed as an alternative, but even this approach is not flawless.
Expressing Emotions
Emotion is often expressed through both facial expressions and body language, which can communicate our feelings to others and help in social interactions. These expressions may stem from evolutionary processes, allowing humans to convey emotions in ways that aid survival.
Motivation and Emotion: The Evolution of Emotional Expressions
Charles Darwin believed that emotional cues, such as facial expressions, evolved from evolutionary predecessors and helped to communicate emotions to others, enabling them to survive. For example, expressions of anger or fear are often seen as universal cues in all species, like bare teeth in humans and animals. These cues can predict potential threats from others, and we are particularly apt to quickly recognize facial expressions of fear or anger, as they often signal danger.
Facial Expressions: Universality and Variability
Some facial expressions seem universal. Fear, anger, disgust, sadness, shock and joy (happiness) are recognized in different cultures and societies, as shown by studies around the world Interestingly, even individuals who were born blind express these basic emotions appear just like people who see. The mouth can express some 20,000 different expressions, but most are a mixture of faces—a combination of different emotions. For example, if a person is upset by an unfair situation, his face will make a tight expression that mixes anger in his eyes with sadness on his face
Three Dimensions of Facial Expressions
Although facial expressions can be intricate and blend various emotions, they can often be understood by focusing on three main emotional dimensions: pleasantness–unpleasantness, attention–rejection, and activation (arousal). These dimensions help us interpret complex expressions by identifying whether someone is expressing positive or negative feelings, whether they are engaging with us or rejecting us, and how energized or calm they feel.
Motivation and Emotion: Cultural Differences in Emotion
Cultural contexts play an important role in shaping emotional expression and experiences. In Western culture, anger is often expressed and viewed as a natural response to injustice. In contrast, many Asian cultures prioritize group solidarity and discourage open expressions of anger. Consequently, anger is suppressed or reduced in these cultures.
Gender and Emotion
In Western culture, women are often seen as more emotional than men, although this is more due to association than to inherent differences in emotional experiences, especially in Western societies where men are taught to suppress emotions, they were often less pronounced than in the females.
Body Language: The Silent Communicator
Although facial expressions are an important part of expressing emotions, body language (also known as gestures) plays an equally important role in communicating emotions. Body movements, postures, and gestures often reveal emotional states, adding depth to verbal communication. For example, a relaxed body posture usually indicates relaxation or relaxation, while strained body language can indicate discomfort or nervousness.
Cultural learning influences body language interpretation in many ways. Positive signs in one culture, like fingerprints, can have completely different meanings in another. It is therefore important to understand the cultural significance of a gesture to avoid misunderstanding.
The “Chameleon Effect”
The “chameleon effect” refers to the tendency to unconsciously mimic the gestures, facial expressions, and postures of others. This mirroring can foster rapport and positive feelings, making people feel more connected. Interestingly, when others mimic our movements, we tend to like them more, which is often used in social bonding.
Body Language and Deception
Body language can give us clues to lying or cheating. While commonly held beliefs about deception cues such as eye avoidance or twitching, research shows that these cues are not always reliable and artists—using speech and gestures a they do—often rarely lie. By lying, one can reduce the natural handshake that often accompanies a truthful statement.
Theories of Emotion
Psychologists have developed several theories to explain how emotions arise and how they are experienced. These theories offer different perspectives, but together they provide a comprehensive view of emotional experiences. Below, we explore key theories that explain the emotional process, from the body’s responses to the cognitive and social factors that influence how we label and experience emotions.
The James-Lange Theory: Emotion Follows Bodily Reactions
The James-Lange theory of emotion, proposed by William James and Carl Lange in the 1880s, suggests that our emotions are a result of bodily reactions. According to this theory, we first experience a physiological change (like increased heart rate or sweating), and then, based on that bodily response, we experience an emotion like fear.
For example, imagine you’re hiking and suddenly encounter a bear. In the James-Lange view, the sequence would go like this: you see the bear, your body reacts by increasing your heart rate and triggering the fight-or-flight response, and only then do you feel fear as a result of recognizing your physiological changes. James argued that often, we don’t realize our emotional state until after noticing these bodily reactions.
The Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotion and Bodily Reactions Happen Simultaneously
Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard disagreed with James and Lange. They proposed the Cannon-Bard theory, which states that emotional feelings and bodily responses occur at the same time. According to this view, when you see a bear, your brain processes the stimulus in the thalamus. This activates both the emotional response in the cortex (which leads to fear) and the bodily arousal in the hypothalamus (which increases heart rate, sweating, etc.). The bear triggers both fear and physical arousal simultaneously, not in sequence.
This theory emphasizes that emotions and bodily responses are linked but occur at the same time rather than one causing the other.
Schachter’s Cognitive Theory of Emotion: The Role of Attribution
Stanley Schachter proposed a more cognitive-based explanation for emotions in his cognitive theory of emotion. According to Schachter, emotions occur when we experience physiological arousal and then cognitively label that arousal based on the situation. This theory highlights how attribution plays a critical role in how we interpret our feelings.
For instance, if you’re startled by someone who suddenly says “boo” behind you, your heart might race and your palms might sweat. However, how you interpret this arousal will depend on the context. If you know the person, you might feel surprised or delighted; if it’s a stranger, you may interpret the same physical reaction as fear. Schachter’s theory suggests that emotions depend heavily on what we attribute our physiological arousal to.
An experiment supporting this theory involved giving participants an injection of adrenaline and then showing them a humorous movie. Those who experienced physical arousal but were not told the cause (the injection) attributed their heightened arousal to the movie and felt more amused. This shows that we often rely on context to label our emotions.
Misattribution of Arousal: When Our Emotions Are Mislabeled
A key concept in Schachter’s theory is misattribution—the idea that we sometimes mistakenly attribute our arousal to the wrong source. One famous study involved male college students who viewed photos of attractive women while hearing an amplified heartbeat. The heartbeat was manipulated to beat faster during some photos. The students then rated the women as more attractive when the louder heartbeat occurred, misattributing their increased arousal to the photos themselves rather than the loud heartbeat.
This misattribution can influence how we feel and interpret emotional experiences, such as mistakenly feeling attracted to someone because of the heightened arousal caused by another factor like fear or excitement.
Emotional Appraisal: How We Evaluate Situations
Richard Lazarus emphasized the importance of emotional appraisal in his theory of emotion. Lazarus argued that emotions depend not just on physiological responses but also on how we evaluate the significance of a situation. When something happens, we automatically assess whether it is positive, negative, threatening, or irrelevant to our well-being. This appraisal shapes the emotional experience.
For example, if someone cuts you off in traffic, you might feel anger. However, if you reframe the situation and think, “Maybe the person didn’t mean it,” or “It’s no big deal,” you might not experience anger at all. Lazarus’s theory underscores how our cognitive evaluations of events can significantly affect the emotions we feel.
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis: Expressions Influence Emotion
The facial feedback hypothesis, proposed by Carrol Izard, suggests that our facial expressions can influence the emotions we feel. This idea builds on Charles Darwin’s observation that facial expressions play a central role in emotional experiences. According to the hypothesis, the act of making a facial expression can feedback into the brain and alter our emotional experience.
Paul Ekman’s research further supported this idea by showing that facial expressions can influence heart rate and skin temperature. Holding a pen in your teeth, which forces you to smile, can make cartoons seem funnier, demonstrating how facial expressions impact emotions.
Motivation and Emotion: Integrating All Theories
A contemporary model of emotion integrates all the previous theories, offering a more complete explanation of how emotions arise. According to this model, when we experience an emotional stimulus (such as encountering a snarling dog), we appraise the situation (deciding if it’s threatening). This appraisal leads to physiological arousal (such as an increased heart rate), cognitive labeling (identifying the emotion as fear), and adaptive behavior (such as running away).
Additionally, the emotional expression we display (fear on our face) further impacts our emotional experience. These elements of emotion—appraisal, arousal, labeling, expression, and behavior—interact and influence each other. For example, the act of running away or the expression of fear on our face can intensify the emotional experience.
This modern view of emotion shows that it is not a simple process but a dynamic, multifaceted experience that involves both body and mind.
Emotional intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is the ability to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions effectively. Psychologists Peter Salovey and John Mayer define it as the ability to recognize and handle both your own emotions and those of others. It helps individuals to be more flexible, adaptable, and emotionally mature.
Importance of Emotional Intelligence:
- Emotional intelligence plays a crucial role in personal success and well-being.
- It contributes to better relationships, adaptability, and social interaction.
- It is just as important as IQ in many life circumstances.
- Poor emotional intelligence can lead to relationship problems, career setbacks, and poor health.
- It is especially important for children and teenagers, as poor emotional skills can lead to depression, aggression, and poor academic performance.
Motivation and Emotion: Key Skills of Emotional Intelligence
Perceiving Emotions
The ability to recognize emotions in yourself and others.
Emotionally intelligent people are aware of their feelings (e.g., anger, guilt, or sadness).
They are also able to empathize and understand others’ emotions through body language, facial expressions, and tone of voice.
Using Emotions
Emotionally intelligent people use their emotions to enhance thinking and decision-making.
They can recall past emotional reactions to guide future behavior.
Positive emotions are used to strengthen relationships and improve personal well-being.
Understanding Emotions
Emotions have meanings and causes. For example:
Anger signals that something is wrong.
Anxiety suggests uncertainty.
Embarrassment is linked to feelings of shame.
Enthusiasm indicates excitement.
Emotionally intelligent people understand these emotional cues and their effects on behavior.
Managing Emotions
This involves regulating your own emotions and responding to others’ emotions in a balanced way.
For example, knowing how to calm yourself when you’re angry and how to soothe others when they are upset.
Emotionally intelligent people can adjust their emotions according to the situation (e.g., amplifying or restraining emotions).
Motivation and Emotion: Positive and Negative Emotions
Positive Emotions (e.g., joy, love, interest, contentment) broaden our focus, encourage personal growth, and promote social connections. They also help in creativity, exploration, and seeking new experiences.
Negative Emotions (e.g., distress, sadness, anxiety) can also be valuable. They often motivate us to take action, resolve issues, or seek help.